DIVING AS A HIGH-RISK SPORT: INJURY PREVENTION, SAFETY PROTOCOLS AND HUMAN FACTORS – A LITERATURE REVIEW

Łukasz Brzost; Marta Danuta Cendrowska; Justyna Berent; Karolina Stępień; Beata Choromańska; Barbara Ponitka; Paulina Rzepa; Julia Procyk; Aleksandra Klukowska; Julia Maszewska; Wiktoria Szumlińska; Szymon Milnerowicz

doi:10.31435/ijitss.4(48).2025.4199

Łukasz Brzost District Hospital in Garwolin, Garwolin, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0003-4119-6679
Marta Danuta Cendrowska National Medical Institute of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration, Warsaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0534-5995
Justyna Berent District Hospital in Garwolin, Garwolin, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7378-556X
Karolina Stępień Private Practice, Warsaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6812-5662
Beata Choromańska Mazovian Brodnowski Hospital, Warsaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0009-1771-4265
Barbara Ponitka Lower Silesian Oncology Center, Wroclaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9077-9123
Paulina Rzepa Provincial Integrated Hospital in Elbląg, Elbląg, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0005-4497-0230
Julia Procyk University Clinical Hospital in Wrocław, Wroclaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7271-7047
Aleksandra Klukowska Military Institute of Medicine, Warsaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0064-3829
Julia Maszewska Lower Silesian Oncology Center, Wroclaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0007-0788-9470
Wiktoria Szumlińska National Medical Institute of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration, Warsaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0001-5286-4228
Szymon Milnerowicz Lower Silesian Oncology Center, Wroclaw, Poland https://orcid.org/0009-0004-5718-2367

DOI: https://doi.org/10.31435/ijitss.4(48).2025.4199

Keywords: Scuba Diving, Human Error, Barotrauma, Decompression Sickness, Risk Management, Underwater Sports

Abstract

Introduction: Diving is a high-risk activity due to physiological and psychological stressors. This review addresses diving-related injuries and accidents, with particular emphasis on human factors and prevention strategies.

Materials and Methods: We conducted a literature review (PubMed, 1995–2025) of studies on diving hazards (e.g., barotrauma, decompression sickness, drowning), psychological factors (anxiety, panic), human errors (miscommunication, overconfidence), and training and safety compliance measures.

Results: Divers face barotrauma (ear, sinus, pulmonary), decompression illness, physical and thermal injuries, and drowning. Psychological stress (anxiety, panic) and human errors (communication failure, inattentiveness, overconfidence) contribute substantially to accidents. Many incidents involve cascading errors. Simulation-based training and adherence to evidence-based safety procedures have been shown to improve preparedness and reduce incidents.

Conclusion: Effective dive safety requires addressing hazards and human error. Emphasizing adherence to dive protocols (ascent rates, decompression stops), clear communication, and error recognition is essential. Comprehensive training and the development of a safety culture are essential to mitigate risk and prevent injuries.

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DIVING AS A HIGH-RISK SPORT: INJURY PREVENTION, SAFETY PROTOCOLS AND HUMAN FACTORS – A LITERATURE REVIEW

Abstract

References

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