NON-PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA - SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe and chronic mental disorder that affects up to 1% of the general population. Research suggests that the most effective therapeutic approach combines medication with non-pharmacological strategies. This review explores the impact of non-pharmacological treatment on the course of schizophrenia, including its effects on key symptoms, as well as patients' quality of life and overall life satisfaction. This article is a comprehensive review based on articles obtained from scientific databases such as PubMed and Google Scholar, with sources selected based on their relevance and significance to the subject matter. The findings indicate that non-pharmacological treatments, including lifestyle modifications, psychosocial interventions, and neuromodulation training play a crucial role in improving the quality of life for individuals with schizophrenia. There is evidence supporting the reduction of both negative and positive symptoms, as well as an increased likelihood of returning to everyday activities. Non-pharmacological strategies are integral to the comprehensive management of schizophrenia. While the effectiveness of pharmacological interventions is well-established, current clinical guidelines also highlight the complementary role of non-pharmacological treatments, which contribute meaningfully to therapeutic outcomes and overall patient well-being.
References
Acquadro Maran, D., Capitanelli, I., Cortese, C. G., Ilesanmi, O. S., Gianino, M. M., & Chirico, F. (2022). Animal-assisted intervention and health care workers’ psychological health: A systematic review of the literature. Animals: An Open Access Journal from MDPI, 12(3), 383. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030383
Aranburu, E., Matias, S., Simón, E., Larretxi, I., Martínez, O., Bustamante, M. Á., Fernández-Gil, M. del P., & Miranda, J. (2021). Gluten and FODMAPs relationship with mental disorders: Systematic review. Nutrients, 13(6), 1894. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13061894
Arsovski, D. (2024). The role of animal assisted therapy in the rehabilitation of mental health disorders: A systematic literature review. Perspectives on Integrative Medicine, 3(3), 142–151. https://doi.org/10.56986/pim.2024.10.003
Balcioglu, S. S. K., Balcioglu, Y. H., & Devrim Balaban, O. (2022). The association between chronotype and sleep quality, and cardiometabolic markers in patients with schizophrenia. Chronobiology International, 39(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2021.1974029
Barak, Y., Savorai, O., Mavashev, S., & Beni, A. (2001). Animal-assisted therapy for elderly schizophrenic patients: a one-year controlled trial. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 9(4), 439–442.
Baranwal, N., Yu, P. K., & Siegel, N. S. (2023). Sleep physiology, pathophysiology, and sleep hygiene. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, 77, 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2023.02.005
Barker, S. B., Pandurangi, A. K., & Best, A. M. (2003). Effects of animal-assisted therapy on patients’ anxiety, fear, and depression before ECT. The Journal of ECT, 19(1), 38–44. https://doi.org/10.1097/00124509-200303000-00008
Barlati, S., Nibbio, G., & Vita, A. (2024). Evidence-based psychosocial interventions in schizophrenia: a critical review. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 37(3), 131–139. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000925
Barnes, T. R., Drake, R., Paton, C., Cooper, S. J., Deakin, B., Ferrier, I. N., Gregory, C. J., Haddad, P. M., Howes, O. D., Jones, I., Joyce, E. M., Lewis, S., Lingford-Hughes, A., MacCabe, J. H., Owens, D. C., Patel, M. X., Sinclair, J. M., Stone, J. M., Talbot, P. S., … Yung, A. R. (2020). Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia: Updated recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 34(1), 3–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881119889296
Bauer, C. C. C., Okano, K., Ghosh, S. S., Lee, Y. J., Melero, H., Angeles, C. de L., Nestor, P. G., Del Re, E. C., Northoff, G., Niznikiewicz, M. A., & Whitfield-Gabrieli, S. (2020). Real-time fMRI neurofeedback reduces auditory hallucinations and modulates resting state connectivity of involved brain regions: Part 2: Default mode network -preliminary evidence. Psychiatry Research, 284(112770), 112770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112770
Bellani, M., Ricciardi, C., Rossetti, M. G., Zovetti, N., Perlini, C., & Brambilla, P. (2019). Cognitive remediation in schizophrenia: the earlier the better? Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 29(e57), e57. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796019000532
Bighelli, I., Leucht, C., Huhn, M., Reitmeir, C., Schwermann, F., Wallis, S., Davis, J. M., & Leucht, S. (2020). Are Randomized Controlled Trials on Pharmacotherapy and Psychotherapy for Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia Comparable? A Systematic Review of Patient and Study Characteristics. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 46(3), 496–504.
Birulés, I., López-Carrilero, R., Cuadras, D., Pousa, E., Barrigón, M. L., Barajas, A., Lorente-Rovira, E., González-Higueras, F., Grasa, E., Ruiz-Delgado, I., Cid, J., de Apraiz, A., Montserrat, R., Pélaez, T., Moritz, S., & Ochoa, S. (2020). Cognitive Insight in First-Episode Psychosis: Changes during Metacognitive Training. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 10(4), 253.
Bisso, E., Signorelli, M. S., Milazzo, M., Maglia, M., Polosa, R., Aguglia, E., & Caponnetto, P. (2020). Immersive virtual reality applications in schizophrenia spectrum therapy: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 6111. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176111
Bowie, C. R., Bell, M. D., Fiszdon, J. M., Johannesen, J. K., Lindenmayer, J.-P., McGurk, S. R., Medalia, A. A., Penadés, R., Saperstein, A. M., Twamley, E. W., Ueland, T., & Wykes, T. (2020). Cognitive remediation for schizophrenia: An expert working group white paper on core techniques. Schizophrenia Research, 215, 49–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.10.047
Bueno-Antequera, J., & Munguía-Izquierdo, D. (2020). Exercise and schizophrenia. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 1228, 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1792-1_21
Calvo, P., Fortuny, J. R., Guzmán, S., Macías, C., Bowen, J., García, M. L., Orejas, O., Molins, F., Tvarijonaviciute, A., Cerón, J. J., Bulbena, A., & Fatjó, J. (2016). Animal assisted therapy (AAT) program as a useful adjunct to conventional psychosocial rehabilitation for patients with schizophrenia: Results of a small-scale randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 631. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00631
Cempa, K., Jurys, T., Kluczyński, S., & Andreew, M. (2022). Physical activity as a therapeutic method for non-pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia: A systematic literature review. Psychiatria Polska, 56(4), 837–859. https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/140053
Chaurasia, N., Mishra, P., Garg, S., & Malik, G. (2023). Sleep quality in patients with schizophrenia in a tertiary care center in northern India. The Primary Care Companion to CNS Disorders, 25(6). https://doi.org/10.4088/pcc.23m03564
Chen, M.-Y., Wang, Y.-Y., Si, T. L., Liu, Y.-F., Su, Z., Cheung, T., Ungvari, G. S., Jackson, T., Zhang, Q., & Xiang, Y.-T. (2024). Poor sleep quality in schizophrenia patients: A systematic review and meta-analyses of epidemiological and case-control studies. Schizophrenia Research, 264, 407–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2024.01.011
Chen, T.-T., Hsieh, T.-L., Chen, M.-L., Tseng, W.-T., Hung, C.-F., & Chen, C.-R. (2021). Animal-assisted therapy in middle-aged and older patients with schizophrenia: A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 713623. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.713623
Colizzi, M., Ruggeri, M., & Lasalvia, A. (2020). Should we be concerned about stigma and discrimination in people at risk for psychosis? A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 50(5), 705–726. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720000148
Crawford, M. J., Killaspy, H., Barnes, T. R. E., Barrett, B., Byford, S., Clayton, K., Dinsmore, J., Floyd, S., Hoadley, A., Johnson, T., Kalaitzaki, E., King, M., Leurent, B., Maratos, A., O’Neill, F. A., Osborn, D. P., Patterson, S., Soteriou, T., Tyrer, P., … MATISSE project team. (2012). Group art therapy as an adjunctive treatment for people with schizophrenia: multicentre pragmatic randomised trial. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 344, e846. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e846
Crawford, M. J., Killaspy, H., Kalaitzaki, E., Barrett, B., Byford, S., Patterson, S., Soteriou, T., O’Neill, F. A., Clayton, K., Maratos, A., Barnes, T. R., Osborn, D., Johnson, T., King, M., Tyrer, P., & Waller, D. (2010). The MATISSE study: a randomised trial of group art therapy for people with schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry, 10(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-10-65
Crespo-Facorro, B., Such, P., Nylander, A.-G., Madera, J., Resemann, H. K., Worthington, E., O’Connor, M., Drane, E., Steeves, S., & Newton, R. (2021). The burden of disease in early schizophrenia - a systematic literature review. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 37(1), 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/03007995.2020.1841618
Cumming, P., Abi-Dargham, A., & Gründer, G. (2021). Molecular imaging of schizophrenia: Neurochemical findings in a heterogeneous and evolving disorder. Behavioural Brain Research, 398(113004), 113004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113004
Curcic, D., Stojmenovic, T., Djukic-Dejanovic, S., Dikic, N., Vesic-Vukasinovic, M., Radivojevic, N., Andjelkovic, M., Borovcanin, M., & Djokic, G. (2017). Positive impact of prescribed physical activity on symptoms of schizophrenia: randomized clinical trial. Psychiatria Danubina, 29(4), 459–465. https://doi.org/10.24869/psyd.2017.459
de Jong, S., van Donkersgoed, R. J. M., Timmerman, M. E., Aan Het Rot, M., Wunderink, L., Arends, J., van Der Gaag, M., Aleman, A., Lysaker, P. H., & Pijnenborg, G. H. M. (2019). Metacognitive reflection and insight therapy (MERIT) for patients with schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 49(2), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718000855
Dimitrijević, I. (2009). Animal-Assisted Therapy-a new trend in the treatment of children and addults. Psychiatria Danubina, 21(2), 236–241.
Du, S.-C., Li, C.-Y., Lo, Y.-Y., Hu, Y.-H., Hsu, C.-W., Cheng, C.-Y., Chen, T.-T., Hung, P.-H., Lin, P.-Y., & Chen, C.-R. (2024). Effects of visual art therapy on positive symptoms, negative symptoms, and emotions in individuals with schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland), 12(11), 1156. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12111156
Duan, Y., Li, S., Jia, S., Yu, F., Wang, X., & Long, Y. (2025). Systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of EEG neurofeedback combined with pharmacological treatment on the positive and negative symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 16, 1537329. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1537329
El Kirat, H., Khattabi, A., Khalis, M., & Belrhiti, Z. (2023). Effects of physical activity and nutrient supplementation on symptoms and well-being of schizophrenia patients: An umbrella review. Schizophrenia Research, 262, 112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2023.10.021
Fernández-Sotos, P., Fernández-Caballero, A., & Rodriguez-Jimenez, R. (2020). Virtual reality for psychosocial remediation in schizophrenia: a systematic review. The European Journal of Psychiatry, 34(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpsy.2019.12.003
Firth, J., Cotter, J., Elliott, R., French, P., & Yung, A. R. (2015). A systematic review and meta-analysis of exercise interventions in schizophrenia patients. Psychological Medicine, 45(7), 1343–1361. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714003110
Firth, Joseph, Stubbs, B., Rosenbaum, S., Vancampfort, D., Malchow, B., Schuch, F., Elliott, R., Nuechterlein, K. H., & Yung, A. R. (2017). Aerobic exercise improves cognitive functioning in people with schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43(3), 546–556. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbw115
Fitapelli, B., & Lindenmayer, J.-P. (2022). Advances in Cognitive Remediation Training in Schizophrenia: A Review. Brain Sciences, 12(2), 129.
Fulmer, R. (2018). The evolution of the psychodynamic approach and system. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 10(3), 1. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v10n3p1
Gandara, V., Pineda, J. A., Shu, I.-W., & Singh, F. (2020). A systematic review of the potential use of neurofeedback in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin Open, 1(1), sgaa005. https://doi.org/10.1093/schizbullopen/sgaa005
George, O., & Kasinathan, J. (2015). Mural art therapy for young offenders hospitalised with a mental illness. Australasian Psychiatry: Bulletin of Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists, 23(1), 49–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856214563852
Gillouin, P.-A., Mattatia, D., & Bouvet, C. (2024). Virtual reality for clinical evaluation and treatment in schizophrenia: a systematic review. Psychosis, 16(2), 212–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/17522439.2023.2197030
Girdler, S. J., Confino, J. E., & Woesner, M. E. (2019). Exercise as a treatment for schizophrenia: A review. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 49(1), 56–69.
Granholm, E., McQuaid, J. R., McClure, F. S., Auslander, L. A., Perivoliotis, D., Pedrelli, P., Patterson, T., & Jeste, D. V. (2005). A randomized, controlled trial of cognitive behavioral social skills training for middle-aged and older outpatients with chronic schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(3), 520–529. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.3.520
Harder, S., Koester, A., Valbak, K., & Rosenbaum, B. (2014). Five-year follow-up of supportive psychodynamic psychotherapy in first-episode psychosis: long-term outcome in social functioning. Psychiatry, 77(2), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2014.77.2.155
Herz, M. I. (1985). Boston psychotherapy study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 11(4), 528–531. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/11.4.528
Hirano, Y., & Tamura, S. (2021). Recent findings on neurofeedback training for auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 34(3), 245–252. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000693
Hotte-Meunier, A., Penney, D., Mendelson, D., Thibaudeau, É., Moritz, S., Lepage, M., & Sauvé, G. (2024). Effects of metacognitive training (MCT) on social cognition for schizophrenia spectrum and related psychotic disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 54(5), 914–920. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291723002611
Hoy, K., Roher, S., & Duncan, A. (2023). Exploring the transfer effects of social skills interventions for individuals with serious mental illness: A scoping review: Social skills transferability. Journal of Recovery in Mental Health, 6(1), 4–18. https://doi.org/10.33137/jrmh.v6i1.37889
Hu, J., Zhang, J., Hu, L., Yu, H., & Xu, J. (2021). Art therapy: A complementary treatment for mental disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 686005. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.686005
Imboden, C., Claussen, M. C., Seifritz, E., & Gerber, M. (2022). Die Bedeutung von körperlicher Aktivität für die psychische Gesundheit. Praxis, 110(4), 186–191. https://doi.org/10.1024/1661-8157/a003831
Jauhar, S., Johnstone, M., & McKenna, P. J. (2022). Schizophrenia. Lancet, 399(10323), 473–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01730-X
Jeffrey, C., Penney, D., Sauvé, G., Mendelson, D., Thibaudeau, É., Moritz, S., Hotte-Meunier, A., & Lepage, M. (2025). Does metacognitive training for psychosis (MCT) improve neurocognitive performance? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 275, 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2024.12.004
Kakeri, F., Teimouri, M., Davarinezhad, O., Omidi, R., & Yazdani, M. (2024). The efficacy of neurofeedback treatment on positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia: a systematic review. Tabari Biomed Stu Res J, 6(3), 74–85.
Keepers, G. A., Fochtmann, L. J., Anzia, J. M., Benjamin, S., Lyness, J. M., Mojtabai, R., Servis, M., Walaszek, A., Buckley, P., Lenzenweger, M. F., Young, A. S., Degenhardt, A., Hong, S.-H., & (Systematic Review). (2020). The American psychiatric association practice guideline for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 177(9), 868–872. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.177901
Koutsomitros, T., Evagorou, O., Schuhmann, T., Zamar, A., & Sack, A. T. (2021). Advances in transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and its applications in resistant depression. Psychiatrike, 32(Supplement I), 90–98. https://doi.org/10.22365/jpsych.2021.054
Maric, N. P., Jovicic, M. J., Mihaljevic, M., & Miljevic, C. (2016). Improving current treatments for schizophrenia. Drug Development Research, 77(7), 357–367. https://doi.org/10.1002/ddr.21337
Marin, L., Guàrdia, A., González-Rodríguez, A., Haba-Rubio, J., Natividad, M., Bosch, E., Domínguez, N., & Monreal, J. A. (2023). Sleep disturbances in at-risk mental states and first episode of psychosis: A narrative review on interventions. Clocks & Sleep, 5(2), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.3390/clockssleep5020020
Marr, C. A., French, L., Thompson, D., Drum, L., Greening, G., Mormon, J., Henderson, I., & Hughes, C. W. (2000). Animal-assisted therapy in psychiatric rehabilitation. Anthrozoos, 13(1), 43–47. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279300786999950
Marzouk, T., Winkelbeiner, S., Azizi, H., Malhotra, A. K., & Homan, P. (2020). Transcranial magnetic stimulation for positive symptoms in schizophrenia: A systematic review. Neuropsychobiology, 79(6), 384–396. https://doi.org/10.1159/000502148
Młynarska, E., Gadzinowska, J., Tokarek, J., Forycka, J., Szuman, A., Franczyk, B., & Rysz, J. (2022). The role of the microbiome-brain-gut axis in the pathogenesis of depressive disorder. Nutrients, 14(9), 1921. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14091921
Modesti, M. N., Arena, J. F., Palermo, N., & Del Casale, A. (2023). A Systematic Review on Add-On Psychotherapy in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders. J. Clin. Med., 12(3), 1021.
Montag, C., Haase, L., Seidel, D., Bayerl, M., Gallinat, J., Herrmann, U., & Dannecker, K. (2014). A pilot RCT of psychodynamic group art therapy for patients in acute psychotic episodes: feasibility, impact on symptoms and mentalising capacity. PloS One, 9(11), e112348. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112348
Moritz, S., Andreou, C., Schneider, B. C., Wittekind, C. E., Menon, M., Balzan, R. P., & Woodward, T. S. (2014). Sowing the seeds of doubt: a narrative review on metacognitive training in schizophrenia. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(4), 358–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.04.004
Moritz, S., & Lysaker, P. H. (2018). Metacognition - What did James H. Flavell really say and the implications for the conceptualization and design of metacognitive interventions. Schizophrenia Research, 201, 20–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2018.06.001
Moritz, S., Menon, M., Balzan, R., & Woodward, T. S. (2023). Metacognitive training for psychosis (MCT): past, present, and future. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 273(4), 811–817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-022-01394-9
Morrison, A. P., Law, H., Carter, L., Sellers, R., Emsley, R., Pyle, M., French, P., Shiers, D., Yung, A. R., Murphy, E. K., Holden, N., Steele, A., Bowe, S. E., Palmier-Claus, J., Brooks, V., Byrne, R., Davies, L., & Haddad, P. M. (2018). Antipsychotic drugs versus cognitive behavioural therapy versus a combination of both in people with psychosis: a randomised controlled pilot and feasibility study. The Lancet. Psychiatry, 5(5), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30096-8
Nathans-Barel, I., Feldman, P., Berger, B., Modai, I., & Silver, H. (2005). Animal-assisted therapy ameliorates anhedonia in schizophrenia patients. A controlled pilot study. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 74(1), 31–35. https://doi.org/10.1159/000082024
Okusaga, O., Yolken, R. H., Langenberg, P., Sleemi, A., Kelly, D. L., Vaswani, D., Giegling, I., Hartmann, A. M., Konte, B., Friedl, M., Mohyuddin, F., Groer, M. W., Rujescu, D., & Postolache, T. T. (2013). Elevated gliadin antibody levels in individuals with schizophrenia. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry, 14(7), 509–515. https://doi.org/10.3109/15622975.2012.747699
Oliveira, C., Simões de Almeida, R., & Marques, A. (2021). Virtual reality in social skills training programs for people with schizophrenia: A systematic review and focus group. The British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 84(9), 571–581. https://doi.org/10.1177/03080226211011391
Oprea, D. C., Mawas, I., Moroșan, C. A., Iacob, V. T., Cămănaru, E. M., Cristofor, A. C., Dobrin, R. P., Gireadă, B., Petrariu, F. D., & Chiriță, R. (2024). A systematic review of the effects of EEG neurofeedback on patients with schizophrenia. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 14(7), 763. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm14070763
Owen, L., & Corfe, B. (2017). The role of diet and nutrition on mental health and wellbeing. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 76(4), 425–426. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665117001057
Park, K.-M., Ku, J., Choi, S.-H., Jang, H.-J., Park, J.-Y., Kim, S. I., & Kim, J.-J. (2011). A virtual reality application in role-plays of social skills training for schizophrenia: a randomized, controlled trial. Psychiatry Research, 189(2), 166–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.04.003
Patel, S., Silvi, S., Desai, S., Rahman, F., Depa, N., Hanif, S., Rizvi, S., Hsieh, Y.-C., Malik, P., Patel, U., Mansuri, Z., Mercy, R. P., Aedma, K., & Parikh, T. (2023). Effectiveness of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in depression, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder: An umbrella meta-analysis. The Primary Care Companion to CNS Disorders, 25(5). https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.22r03423
Paulhus, D. L., Fridhandler, B., & Hayes, S. (1997). Psychological Defense. In R. Hogan (Ed.), Handbook of Personality Psychology (Vol. 987, pp. 543–579). Elsevier.
Quality statement 2: Cognitive behavioural therapy. (n.d.). NICE. Retrieved July 21, 2025, from https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/qs80/chapter/quality-statement-2-cognitive-behavioural-therapy
Rahmati, M., Lee, S., Yon, D. K., Lee, S. W., Udeh, R., McEvoy, M., Oh, H., Butler, L., Keyes, H., Barnett, Y., Koyanagi, A., Shin, J. I., & Smith, L. (2024). Physical activity and prevention of mental health complications: An umbrella review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 160, 105641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105641
Richardson, P., Jones, K., Evans, C., Stevens, P., & Rowe, A. (2007). Exploratory RCT of art therapy as an adjunctive treatment in schizophrenia. Journal of Mental Health (Abingdon, England), 16(4), 483–491. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638230701483111
Rothwell, J. (2018). Transcranial brain stimulation: Past and future. Brain and Neuroscience Advances, 2, 2398212818818070. https://doi.org/10.1177/2398212818818070
Ruffalo, M. L. (2023). The psychotherapy of schizophrenia: A review of the evidence for psychodynamic and nonpsychodynamic treatments. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 33(3), 222–228. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2023.23627
Sarnyai, Z., Kraeuter, A.-K., & Palmer, C. M. (2019). Ketogenic diet for schizophrenia: clinical implication: Clinical implication. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 32(5), 394–401. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000535
Schizophrenia. (n.d.). Who.int. Retrieved July 21, 2025, from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schizophrenia
Schuch, F. B., & Vancampfort, D. (2021). Physical activity, exercise, and mental disorders: it is time to move on. Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 43(3), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.47626/2237-6089-2021-0237
Seccomandi, B., Tsapekos, D., Newbery, K., Wykes, T., & Cella, M. (2020). A systematic review of moderators of cognitive remediation response for people with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. Cognition, 19(100160), 100160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scog.2019.100160
Sethi, S., Wakeham, D., Ketter, T., Hooshmand, F., Bjornstad, J., Richards, B., Westman, E., Krauss, R. M., & Saslow, L. (2024). Ketogenic diet intervention on metabolic and psychiatric health in bipolar and schizophrenia: A pilot trial. Psychiatry Research, 335, 115866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2024.115866
Shu, I.-W., Granholm, E. L., & Singh, F. (2023). Targeting frontal gamma activity with neurofeedback to improve working memory in schizophrenia. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 63, 153–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2022_377
Shukla, A., Choudhari, S. G., Gaidhane, A. M., & Quazi Syed, Z. (2022). Role of art therapy in the promotion of mental health: A critical review. Cureus, 14(8), e28026. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.28026
Siafis, S., Tzachanis, D., Samara, M., & Papazisis, G. (2018). Antipsychotic drugs: From receptor-binding profiles to metabolic side effects. Current Neuropharmacology, 16(8), 1210–1223. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X15666170630163616
Stevović, L. I., Repišti, S., Radojičić, T., Sartorius, N., Tomori, S., Kulenović, A. D., Popova, A., Kuzman, M. R., Vlachos, I. I., Statovci, S., Bandati, A., Novotni, A., Bajraktarov, S., Panfil, A.-L., Maric, N., Delić, M., & Jovanović, N. (2022). Non-pharmacological interventions for schizophrenia-analysis of treatment guidelines and implementation in 12 Southeast European countries. Schizophrenia (Heidelberg, Germany), 8(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41537-022-00226-y
Stilo, S. A., Di Forti, M., & Murray, R. M. (2011). Environmental risk factors for schizophrenia: implications for prevention. Neuropsychiatry, 1(5), 457–466. https://doi.org/10.2217/npy.11.42
Storchak, H., Hudak, J., Haeussinger, F. B., Rosenbaum, D., Fallgatter, A. J., & Ehlis, A.-C. (2019). Reducing auditory verbal hallucinations by means of fNIRS neurofeedback - A case study with a paranoid schizophrenic patient. Schizophrenia Research, 204, 401–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2018.09.018
Sun, X., Yue, S., Duan, M., Yao, D., & Luo, C. (2023). Psychosocial intervention for schizophrenia. Brain-Apparatus Communication: A Journal of Bacomics, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/27706710.2023.2178266
Taliercio, J., Bonasera, B., Portillo, C., Ramjas, E., & Serper, M. (2020). Physical activity, sleep-related behaviors and severity of symptoms in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 294(113489), 113489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113489
Tarpada, S. P., & Morris, M. T. (2017). Physical activity diminishes symptomatic decline in chronic schizophrenia: A systematic review. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 47(4), 29–40.
Teglbjaerg, H. S. (2011). Art therapy may reduce psychopathology in schizophrenia by strengthening the patients’ sense of self: a qualitative extended case report. Psychopathology, 44(5), 314–318. https://doi.org/10.1159/000325025
Tréhout, M., & Dollfus, S. (2018). L’activité physique chez les patients atteints de schizophrénie : de la neurobiologie aux bénéfices cliniques. L’Encephale, 44(6), 538–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2018.05.005
Truong, D. Q., & Bikson, M. (2018). Physics of transcranial direct current stimulation devices and their history. The Journal of ECT, 34(3), 137–143. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCT.0000000000000531
Tyssedal, M. K., Johnsen, E., Brønstad, A., & Skrede, S. (2023). Dog-assisted interventions for adults diagnosed with schizophrenia and related disorders: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1192075. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1192075
Valiengo, L. da C. L., Goerigk, S., Gordon, P. C., Padberg, F., Serpa, M. H., Koebe, S., Santos, L. A. dos, Lovera, R. A. M., Carvalho, J. B. de, van de Bilt, M., Lacerda, A. L. T., Elkis, H., Gattaz, W. F., & Brunoni, A. R. (2020). Efficacy and safety of transcranial direct current stimulation for treating negative symptoms in schizophrenia: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry (Chicago, Ill.), 77(2), 121. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3199
van Zonneveld, S. M., Haarman, B. C. M., van den Oever, E. J., Nuninga, J. O., & Sommer, I. E. C. (2022). Unhealthy diet in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 35(3), 177–185. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000791
Villalta-Gil, V., Roca, M., Gonzalez, N., Domènec, E., Cuca, Escanilla, A., Asensio, M. R., Esteban, M. E., Ochoa, S., Haro, J. M., & Schi-Can group. (2009). Dog-assisted therapy in the treatment of chronic schizophrenia inpatients. Anthrozoos, 22(2), 149–159. https://doi.org/10.2752/175303709x434176
Wang, Q., Yang, Q., & Liu, X. (2023). The microbiota-gut-brain axis and neurodevelopmental disorders. Protein & Cell, 14(10), 762–775. https://doi.org/10.1093/procel/pwad026
Woodward, M. L., Gicas, K. M., Warburton, D. E., White, R. F., Rauscher, A., Leonova, O., Su, W., Smith, G. N., Thornton, A. E., Vertinsky, A. T., Phillips, A. A., Goghari, V. M., Honer, W. G., & Lang, D. J. (2018). Hippocampal volume and vasculature before and after exercise in treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 202, 158–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2018.06.054
Xu, X., Shao, G., Zhang, X., Hu, Y., Huang, J., Su, Y., Zhang, M., Cai, Y., & Zhou, H. (2022). The efficacy of nutritional supplements for the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in adults: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 311(114500), 114500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114500
Yaden, D. B., Earp, D., Graziosi, M., Friedman-Wheeler, D., Luoma, J. B., & Johnson, M. W. (2022). Psychedelics and psychotherapy: Cognitive-behavioral approaches as default. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 873279. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873279
Zajkowska, I., Niczyporuk, P., Urbaniak, A., Tomaszek, N., Modzelewski, S., & Waszkiewicz, N. (2024). Investigating the impacts of diet, supplementation, Microbiota, gut-brain axis on schizophrenia: A narrative review. Nutrients, 16(14), 2228. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16142228
Zhang, R., Ren, J., & Zhang, C. (2023). Efficacy of transcranial alternating current stimulation for schizophrenia treatment: A systematic review. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 168, 52–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.10.021
Zhu, L., & Zheng, L. (2024). Influence of white sound on sleep quality, anxiety, and depression in patients with schizophrenia. Noise & Health, 26(121), 97–101. https://doi.org/10.4103/nah.nah_116_23
Views:
350
Downloads:
221
Copyright (c) 2025 Joanna Gadzinowska, Aleksandra Tomaszewska, Angelika Lewandowska, Gabriela Szpila, Agata Andrzejczyk, Maciej Kokoszka, Michalina Chodór, Krzysztof Feret, Małgorzata Stopyra, Natalia Nafalska
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles are published in open-access and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Hence, authors retain copyright to the content of the articles.
CC BY 4.0 License allows content to be copied, adapted, displayed, distributed, re-published or otherwise re-used for any purpose including for adaptation and commercial use provided the content is attributed.
